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edit this page Theme editorial: Urban energy; a rapidly expanding issue
L'énergie urbaine: une dimension croissante
La plupart des grandes villes sont situées dans les PVD et, en général, les populations urbaines croissent plus rapidement que la moyenne nationale. Ceci peut conduire à des problèmes d'approvisionnement en énergie. Le bois provient souvent de forêts favorisant ainsi la déforestation. Il est cependant onéreux de passer d'équipements utilisant la biomasse à ceux utilisant des énergies fossiles. Une meilleure option pourrait être le dévelopement de plantations et des moyens plus efficaces de production du charbon. Si la connexion électrique des populations à forte concentration est aisée, il existe cependant des problèmes économiques et sociaux. Les politiques de promotion d'énergie plus propres doivent prendre en considération la situation dans son ensemble, éviter les subventions non nécessaires, mettre l'accent sur la participation des populations locales tout en permettant le fonctionnement des marchés. |
[top] [end]The scale of the problem Of the world's twenty-five biggest cities, nineteen are in poor countries. Out of these twenty-five cities, fifteen have over ten million people, and eleven of these cities are in poor countries. Currently a third of the world's total population live in cities in developing countries, and, if current trends continue, over one half of the world's population will live in cities in these countries by 2025. By 2000, two-thirds of the world's urban population will be in developing countries. The greatest rate of urbanisation is in Central Africa, Latin America and Asia, where people are leaving the rural areas for the cities. Large urban slums frequently characterise the rapidly expanding cities of developing countries. These statistics underline the importance of effective and timely urban household energy policies.  Figure 1: Stem wood is preferred by commercial harvesters |
[top] [end]A few characteristics... In general the rate of urban population growth is greater than the national average, sometimes significantly greater, and therefore fuel supply problems can develop rapidly. The high population densities in urban areas lead to different energy and fuel use patterns compared to those in rural areas. Biomass is still used extensively however - for example 90% of urban households in Zambia use biomass on a daily basis, 70% in the Philippines, and 40% in Uruguay - often in combination with other fuels. Informal gathering of wood, crop residues and dung is usually limited in urban areas and fuel therefore must be bought. Stem wood (tree-trunks) is preferred to branches by the commercial harvesters since it is easier to transport (Figure 1). This has a far greater effect on the environment, as cutting down trees causes deforestation, whilst taking off dead branches does not. Wood combustion can have dire health consequences for poor urban dwellers as people are crowded together, creating clouds of smoke in and around dwellings. Since the cost of transporting fuel contributes significantly to the total fuel price, fuels which provide the same amount of heat for less weight are favoured. This frequently means a shift up the energy ladder to cleaner and more modern fuels as shown in Figure 2.  Figure 2: The energy ladder, comparing energy delivered to the pot by selected cooking fuels (Source: The World Bank 1996) |
A major obstacle to this, however, is the cost of appliances for these fuels; whereas wood and candles can be used without any special appliances, fuels like LPG and Kerosene require special burners. Charcoal is often preferred to wood since it delivers more energy per kilogram, burns more cleanly and is a direct substitute for wood. It can, however, cause major problems since at least three times more trees need to be cut for conventional charcoal production than if wood was used instead. Sustainable commercial wood-lots and efficient conversion to charcoal is likely to be more successful in halting deforestation caused by this practice than discouraging its use.
In most cities there is some access to electricity. Electrification costs per household are significantly lower where housing density is high, and it is easier to collect fees from urban areas than rural homesteads. Households with access to electricity frequently continue to use the more traditional fuels, such as wood, for cooking and space heating. This is because they cost less (cooking and heating consume large quantities of energy) and fires have cultural and spiritual significance in some traditions.
[top] [end]...and some implications Policies to promote a transition to clean, safe and sustainable fuels to meet the needs of urban people are urgently required. Experience has shown that the following principles increase the chances of success of interventions:
[top] [end]An holistic approach The dependence of people on dangerous and environmentally damaging forms of energy use is, above all, caused by poverty. Policies that promote economic growth and development on a broad basis (for example job creation, health care and education) will also reduce the use of more dangerous and environmentally damaging fuels.
Poor people are frequently trapped. They lack the power to make their lives better and are confined to repeating behaviour that they frequently know to be bad for them (Figure 3). In urban areas people frequently spend a significant portion of their incomes on energy and are thus eager to find cheaper alternatives. Experience shows that if options are available and reliable, people will generally select the fuel combination most appropriate for their daily needs. An important aspect of enabling choice involves telling people about the health and environmental costs, alternatives and benefits of different fuels as well as the economic costs.  Figure 3: Poverty is the reason for many of the choices made by urban dwellers |
[top] [end]Avoiding unnecessary subsidies Indiscriminate subsidies on fuels frequently benefit higher-income households more than those for whom they are intended. The reason for this is that wealthier households frequently use significantly more energy than poorer households do. In addition, subsidies can become a drain on a government's resources and sometimes discourage efficient fuel use.
[top] [end]Avoiding market failures Carefully targeted subsidies on appliances, or financial support, can be justified where the costs and risks of start-up are high and where they are aimed specifically at preventing market failures. A more powerful mechanism that is receiving growing attention is the provision of affordable micro-credit facilities for people that would not qualify for loans. Some form of financial support for the purchase of efficient appliances that reduce fuel (and health) costs in the long term can be a powerful instrument for change.
[top] [end]Emphasising local participation Experience has repeatedly shown that participation of community organizations and local social units is crucial for the success of energy interventions. Grassroots organizations are familiar with, and understand, local resources and needs. With the input of these organizations, support can be tailored to the needs of the community. Involvement also encourages a sense of ownership and thus commitment to the success of the plans.
[top] [end]Contents: Boiling Point 41: Household energy: the urban dimension  . |
Urban energy - a rapidly expanding issue - A place to feel at home - A social perspective on the family hearth in Africa - Urban Energy - practical and theoretical issues - Development of stoves for cooking and heating in China - The household energy market in urban Mali - What ever happened to kerosene as a cooking fuel - some experiences from Haiti - Energy issues in the small-scale industry sector in Dakar - Urban consumption of biomass energy in Morocco - Energy options for urban households in India - Biobriquettes - a competitive fuel for cooking - Household energy isnt all stoves - Mirte stoves in Ethiopia - An improved cooking stove for farming families
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