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Kenya country overview


Table of Contents

This country synthesis report is based on a detailed country report, which may be accessed through our dynamic report builder is available here.

[top] [end]A. Household energy demand and use

[top] [end]A.1 introduction

Kenya is a very diverse country, in terms of geography, income levels and cultural groups. Depending on income levels, households may cook between 1 and 4 meals per day, although the typical number is 3. Staple foods such as maize and beans can take up to 4 hours to cook, while tea, chapatis, etc., can be prepared much more quickly.

[top] [end]A.2 cooking

Around 90% of rural low-income homes rely on wood for cooking, mostly using 3-stone open fires, with a minority using improved stoves such as the Upesi (typically without chimneys). Where wood is scarce, dung and crop residues are also used. The second most important cooking fuel is charcoal, burned in ceramic or metal jiko stoves, but around 80% of charcoal produced is utilised in urban centres. Although kerosene is available very widely and used for some cooking tasks mostly on wick stoves, it is not typically a primary cooking fuel. LPG and electricity are used for cooking mainly by high income groups, although 8% of urban and 1% of rural low-income households are reported to have access to LPG (most of which is used for cooking). Coal is not available as a household fuel in Kenya.

[top] [end]A.3 Space heating

Space heating is required mainly in the highland areas, particularly in the evenings and in the winter months (July - August are coolest). For most households, wood used for cooking doubles as a heating fuel. Charcoal is also used in jiko stoves for heating, predominantly in the urban areas.

[top] [end]A.4 Hot water

Hot water for domestic use is heated mainly with wood and charcoal, with some use of kerosene. LPG and electricity are in general too expensive for all but the higher-income groups.

[top] [end]A.5 lighting

As an equatorial country where it is dark by around 6.30pm everyday, there is considerable demand for lighting throughout the year. A variety of fuels are used: while many will to some extent use light from the open fire, most low-income homes rely on kerosene in simple wick lamps (around 95% of rural homes are reported to have access to kerosene, around 90% of whom use this fuel for lighting), with some use of candles. Grid electricity is available to around 13% of Kenyan homes - 45% of urban but only 3.1% of rural homes - so makes little contribution to lighting in low-income rural areas.

[top] [end]A.6 Refrigeration and space cooling

For low-income groups, the use of refrigeration and air conditioning are very low. Where these technologies are used, electricity is the main power source.

[top] [end]A.7 Communications and entertainment services

Apart from dry cell (battery) use - which is widespread for radios - almost 10% of the population use lead-acid batteries for TV and radios, but the cost and availability of charging facilities limits this considerably in rural areas. As noted, grid electricity is available to only 3.1% of rural homes.

[top] [end]A.8 Household appliances

Other than electrically powered appliances (radio, TV, music centres, refrigerators, etc.,) which are covered in other sections, the main fuels used in home appliances by low-income families are charcoal and dung for tasks such as ironing.

[top] [end]A.9 Energy for micro-enterprises

Common local micro-enterprises utilise mainly wood (bakeries, restaurants/kiosks, tobacco curing, brick making, fish drying), charcoal (bakeries, restaurants/kiosks), and diesel (corn mills, milk processing, fishing boats). Where available, grid electricity is used for milk processing, corn mills and restaurants.

[top] [end]A.10 Summary and conclusions

There is a wide diversity of energy sources available in Kenya, and these are used for a similar wide diversity of applications. However, the actual patterns of use by low-income households are very constrained by poverty and supply. In rural homes wood, supplemented by dung and crop residues, are overwhelmingly the most important energy sources for cooking, space heating (where/when required), heating water, and for some important micro-enterprises. Charcoal takes on this role in urban areas due to the difficulties of transporting wood into the cities, although wood is also used in urban homes. Kerosene use is widespread, especially for lighting. Access to grid electricity is still very restricted for low-income groups, especially rural, which effectively rules out this modern energy source even for lighting although nearly half of urban homes do have access. LPG use is similarly restricted to higher income groups. Other power sources such as photo-voltaic (PV) solar have made relatively small contributions so far.

[top] [end]B. Household energy supply

[top] [end]B.1 introduction

From Section A it can be appreciated that wood and charcoal are the household fuels used most by low income groups, so issues of supply and sustainability from forests are critical. Kerosene is the most important fossil fuel, and with no oil reserves, Kenya needs to import oil (also for LPG, diesel, etc.) using foreign currency. Electricity is generated by hydro-electric power and fossil fuel (mainly diesel).

[top] [end]B.2 Wood

Kenya has a large potential for fuel wood, but in practice this is restricted by land ownership, environmental factors, transport, etc., so that there is a large deficit of supply in almost all areas of the country totalling more than 20 million tonnes per year in 2000. Only about 17% of the estimated 4 million homes using wood purchase all of it, with around 76% of collecting it with no payment (around 7% purchase some and collect some free), an important disincentive for these households to move to cleaner and more efficient commercial fuels. Most homes still use open 3-stone fires or some variant on this, although there has been significant uptake of improved ceramic stoves in some parts of the country. Open fires have a very low efficiency of 10% at best, while ceramic stoves may achieve 30% efficiency (percentage of heat utilised). A World Bank study has indicated that the Kenya Ceramic Jiko has a penetration level of about 50% throughout the country and is very popular among urban households. Each home uses on average around 3 tonnes of wood per year, some 4.1 million toe for the country. Where purchased, the cost is approximately 1000 KSh/- per tonne - equivalent to 36 Euro/toe. Prices may exceed 100 Euro/toe when wood is scarce.

[top] [end]B.3 Crop residues / dung

Both of these fuels are bulky and have low energy content. As a result, they are used mostly in rural areas when wood is in short supply. The 1.3 million households estimated to be using these fuels burn them in the same types of stoves as for wood, and use 1.5 to 2.2 tonnes per year. Neither fuel is commercially supplied. Total use per year is estimated at 1.1 million toe.

[top] [end]B.4 Charcoal

Charcoal is relatively compact and light, and has high energy content. As a result it is easy to transport and popular among low to middle-income homes in urban areas. Production from forests around the cities of Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru and Kisumu is having a significant negative impact on the environment in these areas. Over 90% of users purchase this fuel, the remainder produce their own. Charcoal is burned in a variety of stoves including the Kenya Ceramic Jiko, and metal stoves (all without flues). A total of around 2.8 million homes are estimated to use some 730,000 tonnes per year (540,200 toe), at a cost of 8-12 KSh/- per kilogram (116 Euro/toe in Nakuru to 175 Euro/toe in Nairobi and Kajiado).

[top] [end]B.5 Coal

As noted above, there is no domestic use of coal in Kenya.

[top] [end]B.6 Kerosene

Almost all homes in Kenya (95%), some 5.9 million households, use kerosene and 82% of the population are reported to use this fuel for lighting. It is burned in wick stoves mainly (some pressure stoves) for cooking, and in wick lamps (some pressure lamps) for lighting. Kerosene is distributed through petrol stations (mainly urban), then through re-sellers to rural and urban residential areas. A decline in the use of kerosene is reported, from 406,000 tonnes in 1999 to 384,000 in 2000, probably as a result of price increases. Urban household use is estimated at 90 litres/year, rural at 41 litres/year, with total consumption of 286,000 toe/year. The cost of kerosene is around 35 KSh/- per litre (range Ksh. 35 and Ksh 37 per litre in 2003), equivalent to 517 Euro/toe. Marked price differentials between urban and rural areas have been reported, from 10% to up to 300% higher in rural areas, which impacts particularly on the rural poor.

[top] [end]B.7 LPG

The use of LPG is growing quite rapidly in Kenya from a very low base, with recent increases of 6% per year in urban areas. Distribution outlets and mechanisms have expanded, including petrol stations, supermarkets and other agencies/distributors. Recently, Baby Meko (3 kg) and Nova (4 kg) bottles have become available, which together with savings and credit facilities, are increasing access for low-income families in urban and some rural areas. Nevertheless, use is still predominantly among the better off, with only 19,000 users in total and only 11% of clients using the 3 kg bottles. Total use is estimated to be 33,300 toe/year. The cost components for LPG use are the bottle (around 2100 KSh/- for an empty 6 kg bottle), refilling the bottle with LPG (500-530 KSh/- for 6kg; 6.4-6.8 Euro), and the cooker (which can include a 1 or 2 ring burner, grill, and oven. A set consisting of an empty 3kg bottle, grill and burner is selling for KSh/- 2230 (Euro 28.5). Refill prices of LPG in 12 kg bottles range between 1070 and 1170 Euro/toe.

[top] [end]B.8 Electricity

Around 600,000 household use electricity, the great majority in urban areas. Estimated consumption is 1,280 kWh per household per year. Power generation liberalised, although the state owned Kengen is main generator. Total installed power generating capacity is around 1200 MW, of which hydro contributed 71%, oil 22%, and geo-thermal the rest. A simple electric cooker costs in the region of 27-53 Euro, while electricity cost 7.5 Euro per kWh.

[top] [end]B.9 Summary and conclusions

The majority of low-incomes homes in Kenya use wood or charcoal, of which 4.09 million and 540,200 toe respectively are used annually. Throughout the country there is a deficit of sustainable fuel wood supply, while the high demand for wood from charcoal production has an important environmental impact. The majority of wood used by households is collected, not bought, which has (at least short-term) economic implications for any transition to commercial fuels. In contrast to the situation for wood, almost all charcoal is purchased. Around 1 million toe of dung and crop residue is used per year - for the same purposes as wood and mostly when the latter is in short supply - and all of this occurs outside of the commercial sector. Kerosene is distributed very widely, with some 286,000 toe used per year. LPG use is increasing in urban areas, and to some extent for low-income households with the introduction of small bottles, wider (de-regulated?) distribution and some credit support - but with only 19,000 homes using some 33,300 toe annually, this remains a minority use fuel and still predominantly for the better-off. Electricity is also predominantly used in urban areas, and even where accessed by the poor would not be used much for cooking.

Cost comparisons are complicated by the fact that most wood and all dung & crop residue is collected rather than purchased, and because kerosene - and LPG appliances in particular - are far more fuel efficient that simple open wood fires (both the combustion efficiency and heat transfer). Hence, the energy available for cooking and other uses from one toe of these fuels (especially LPG) is considerably more than from one toe of wood burned in a 3-stone fire. However, taking the market prices, wood is the cheapest form of energy (36 Euro/toe, considerably more when scarce) followed by charcoal (116-175 Euro/toe), kerosene (500 Euro/toe, marked up in rural areas) with LPG the most expensive (1070-1170 Euro/toe for 12kg bottle refills).

[top] [end]C. Household energy sector governance

[top] [end]C.1 Introduction

(As with most/all the countries under consideration), governance of energy policy for low-income groups is dealing with a complex picture that includes the following elements. The largest group of users relies heavily on non-commercial (wood, dung, crop residues), but mixed with some use of commercial fuels. The supply and distribution of these commercial fuels is set up primarily to meet the demand by the better-off and industry (especially LPG and electricity), with kerosene in a more intermediate situation. Improving access and supply to low-income groups requires some stimulation of demand, etc., although is subject complex influences now - for example including both the reduction of subsidy and the drive towards credit, facilitating access through deregulated distribution, etc. External financial and political influences are important, for example in de-regulation, etc. Another factor that is difficult to define is the efficiency of the administration of services. Take electricity for example, the Kenya Power and Lighting Company, a state owned monopoly has been estimated to cost the economy KSh60 billion (US$846m) annually due to its inefficiency to meet the growing electricity demand. The poor state of the distribution and transmission infrastructure resulting in losses exceeding 21 per cent and costing Kenyan consumers Sh2.1 billion ($30m) annually is also attributed to poor administration of services.

[top] [end]C.2 Household energy sector governance structure

Some eight different Ministries (Energy, Environment and Natural Resources, Agriculture and Rural Development, Information Transport and Communication) and other organisations (National Environment Secretariat, The Forestry Department [is this part of a ministry?], Kenya Forestry Research Institute) are responsible for the governance of energy, forests and the environment in respect of low-income groups in Kenya. Although there are a range of policy initiatives aimed at the supply, conservation and distribution of various energy sources, it is recognised that there is duplication of responsibility and that co-ordination could be improved.

The electricity industry has multiple producers, with generation overseen by the Electricity Regulation Board, with transmission and distribution managed by Kenya Power and Lighting.

[top] [end]C.3 Government policies/programmes

Among the most important policy and programmatic issues in respect of household energy for low-income groups in Kenya, are:

  • Wood fuel is produced from government forests, rangelands and small farms. Recent years (under the Kenya Forestry Master Plan of 1994) have seen an increase in agro-forestry on small farms, so that this is now the single largest producer at nearly 50%. Subsidies continue to be used in respect of government forests however, which has restricted the growth of commercially run plantations.
  • The policy 'environment' in respect of charcoal is somewhat contradictory: as noted above, this fuel is used widely in the urban areas and there is active trading, yet production is not officially recognised as legitimate. Nevertheless, distributors wishing to transport charcoal require a movement 'permit'. Co-ordination of policy in respect of production, supply and protection of the environment is unlikely in these circumstances.
  • There has recently been a liberalisation of the petroleum markets in Kenya, which has had a number of impacts. The price of kerosene has increased (in part due to a tax increase in June 2002), with a fall in demand - kerosene is now seen as less affordable by the poor. On the other hand, liberalisation (together with availability of small bottles and credit) has increased the use of LPG - but, this remains a fuel used by a small (and mainly urban) minority.
  • The Rural Electrification Programme (REP) was introduced in 1973 to promote access for low-income homes, and is funded by a mix of external (loans) and internal revenue. Although demand is reported to be high, in 2000 only 3.8% of rural homes had access to electricity, and both the electricity and appliances are seen as too costly. Due to the restrictions in generation with the Kenya Power Company operating under Kenya Power and Lighting Company for a long time as a monopoly for electricity generation and distribution, electrification levels remained below demand and distribution limited to a few areas. Until the late 1990's KPLC was a monopoly. Upon liberalisation of the industry, Kenya Power Company part of KPLC became independent and was transformed to Kenya Generating Company. A few other independent power producers have been established in the country. This has increased the generating capacity. KPLC however, has remained a monopoly as the sole distributor of electricity. It has been unable to meet the demand for electricity supply in rural areas. Issues of corporate governance at KPLC have been raised with regard to the management. The Government policy on distribution of electricity has backed KPLC's monopolistic behaviour. Advocacy to change this policy is currently underway in the country.
  • There have been a number of policy initiatives in respect of renewable energy, improved stoves, etc., but these appear to be - in practice - piecemeal and not very effective.
The governance of energy, particularly for low-income groups, is shared across too many government departments and agencies - at least with insufficient co-ordination. Probably the most significant policy change in recent years, is the liberalisation of the petroleum market, which has pushed up the price of kerosene (with a resulting reduction in demand between 1999 and 2000), but improved the supply of and access to LPG - though only for relatively very small numbers of low income homes. Despite the existence of a specific programme, rural electrification appears to be progressing very slowly, partly due to the high cost of work in network extension and inadequate budgetary allocations of the government implementer (KPLC) - to penetrate the rural areas. Other reasons for the failure include the monopolistic nature of KPLC, which makes the cost of transmission and distribution prohibitive to rural households, and poor cost recovery from rural areas. The REP could be made more effective by institutionalising an independent body and there is provision for this in the draft energy policy to implement the REP and liberalising distribution paving the way for decentralised energy systems.

The official policy on charcoal production appears to be at odds with the reality of commercial trade and utilisation of this fuel, which (while probably pragmatic in the short-term) would seem counter-productive over a longer time-scale. Other areas of policy on energy for the poor, forestry, renewable energy and conservation, and improved stoves, appear to be of limited effectiveness, even though some policy exists for most of these issues.

[top] [end]D. Household energy information

[top] [end]D.1 Introduction

This report focuses on household energy uses and sources among low-income homes in Kenya. These issues are varied and complex, as are the energy needs (both expressed and potential) of the various cultural groups living in poor urban and rural areas of the country. Overall, this presents a daunting information requirement that is very unlikely to be met fully without studies designed for the specific purpose. The long-standing presence of a focus of expertise on household energy and development in Nairobi has however provided an important information resource for this report.

[top] [end]D.2 Responsibility for collection of household energy information

Information for this report drawn from the following sources:

  • Household interview survey of 2,300 households in 15 representative rural districts and 5 major urban centres, carried out in February 2001. The survey was carried out and co-ordinated by a consultancy group (Kamfor). The questionnaire was designed with the input of the Ministry of Energy and the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), based on work by CBS for the 1989 Population and Housing Census. Interviews were administered by CBS field officers, trained by Kamfor. Additional survey work of 400 cottage industries was carried out by Kamfor using a purposive sample in 14 districts in seven provinces, with assistance from the Department of Forestry, Moi University.
  • A report on energy policy, supply and distribution (Gitonga and Balla, 2001). Most of the data collected for this report was from secondary sources. A few field visits and telephone interviews were also conducted for the study.
  • A number of other sources are quoted for specific items, for example Nyang 1999 (information on household appliances, fuel costs).

[top] [end]D.3 Availability and quality of information on the household energy sector

The availability of the national survey described above means that representative, national and up-to-date information is available - a valuable resource. At present, this author is not well placed to judge the quality of the data, but given the involvement of CBS/national census methodology, a fairly high standard of survey work could be expected. However, since the survey quoted for most of this report was not carried out for this specific purpose, some important categories (for example income groups) do not appear available for analysis. This means that data, for example on access of low income groups to electricity, is not available - and only overall access by urban and rural populations can be quoted. One benefit of the representative sampling method is that 95% confidence intervals can be calculated, hence estimates of precision of figures (for example the % using any given type of fuel for cooking) are available (not given in this report).

Comment on report by Gitonga and Balla to await further information on sources, though this can be expected to be of a high standard.

[top] [end]D.4 Summary and conclusions

Although there are some limitations, the availability of a national sample survey on household energy, together with a review of energy supply policy (etc.), has allowed the compilation of a representative and seemingly fairly reliable picture of the household energy situation for low-income populations in Kenya.

Sparknet, April 2004

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