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Boiling Point 54: Practical Action News Editor: Lucy Stevens


Table of Contents

Boiling Point
Front cover of Boiling Point issue 54
Issue 54 (2007) Climate change and household energy
ArticlePractical Action News Editor: Lucy Stevens
AuthorRachel Berger, Liz Bates

[top] [end]Adapting to climate change – helping poor communities by Rachel Berger

There is widespread agreement among scientists worldwide that climate change is already taking place and that human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases are a major contributory factor. Reports published in 2007 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicate that the pace of change is faster than previously anticipated, and that impacts of increased climate variability are already being felt in many developing countries.

Climate change will affect poor people in some of the world’s poorest countries first and worst, although they have contributed least to the problem.

For many years climate change was seen as an environmental problem: the focus was on how to mitigate through cutting emissions of greenhouse gases. In the last few years, the developmental impacts of climate change are being increasingly realised. Even if strong measures to cut GHGs are taken now in developed countries, the lags in the global atmospheric system means that global temperatures will continue to rise for some time, leading to serious impacts in many parts of the world.

Figure 1. A Floating garden enables vegetable seedlings to be grown during the monsoon season, ready for planting out as soon as the floodwaters recede. (Photo: Practical Action)
Figure 1. A Floating garden enables vegetable seedlings to be grown during the monsoon season, ready for planting out as soon as the floodwaters recede. (Photo: Practical Action)
The nature of climate change impacts varies regionally, and includes:
  • Increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as storms, floods and droughts
  • Increasingly erratic patterns of rainfall, and decreased rainfall over large areas of sub-Saharan Africa
  • Rises in sea levels of between 50cm and 149cm by 2100, with impacts on freshwater supplies in low lying coastal regions
  • Rises in sea temperatures causing death to coral reefs
  • Melting of glaciers with impacts in the medium term on flooding and water availability downstream
  • People will need to adapt to the changes that will take place, and the greatest challenges will be faced by the most vulnerable communities – such as people living in flood or drought-prone regions - who have few resources to help them cope with disasters.

Practical Action has been implementing programmes of disaster risk reduction and livelihood security with vulnerable communities for many years, and in 2004 began a project specifically designed to increase the resilience of poor people to cope with climate change, in four countries of South Asia – Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Pakistan.

Figure 2. Fish cages enable people to rear fish in monsoon ponds when the rivers are flowing too fast for the use of boats (Photo: Practical Action)
Figure 2. Fish cages enable people to rear fish in monsoon ponds when the rivers are flowing too fast for the use of boats (Photo: Practical Action)
Communities were selected who faced risks of climate-related disasters:
  • Bangladesh – monsoon-related floods and river erosion, and reduced dry season rainfall
  • Nepal – increased risk of flooding and landslides during rainy season
  • Sri Lanka – intrusion of salt water into rice fields as a result of storm surges and sea level rise
  • Pakistan – increased risk of drought, and monsoon flooding for riverine communities in the Punjab

The 3-year project, which ended in December 2007, has the following main components:
  • Capturing local knowledge on climate variability and coping strategies
  • Raising awareness of climate change and its likely local impacts among communities, local government and line department officials working at district level
  • Building capacity to develop community-based plans for disaster preparedness and prevention
  • Strengthening local livelihoods, and ensuring they will be adaptable and resilient to climate change – through changed agricultural practices and more diversified sources of income
  • Empowering people to ensure their voices are heard and their needs incorporated into climate-related plans and policies at local, national and international level.

Figure 3. A check dam to divert the flood current (Photo: Practical Action)
Figure 3. A check dam to divert the flood current (Photo: Practical Action)
Figure 4. Contour planting in Nepal Chitwan 2005 (Photo: Practical Action)
Figure 4. Contour planting in Nepal Chitwan 2005 (Photo: Practical Action)
Climate change does not have to result in disaster for vulnerable communities – if people understand what is likely to happen, and are given the skills and resources to plan and prepare. Where rapid-onset disasters – like floods or landslides – are likely, community volunteers can be trained to manage early warning systems and to evacuate vulnerable people from their homes to pre-identified places of safety, such as a community building on higher ground. People are encouraged to have ready emergency packs containing valuable identity papers and food, and fodder for their livestock.

Practical, sustainable technologies for strengthened natural resource management and production have been developed which accord with local livelihoods and knowledge. In Bangladesh, examples include floating vegetable gardens and fish cages. The floating garden, made of local banana tree trunks and water hyacinth, enable vegetable seedlings to be grown during the monsoon season, ready for planting out as soon as the floodwaters recede.

The fish cages enable people to rear fish from fingerlings to edible size by tethering the cages in rainy-season ponds when the rivers are flowing too fast for the use of fishing boats.

In Nepal, improving rainfed irrigation channels has enabled off-season cultivation of tomatoes and cucumbers to increase incomes which had been falling due to reduced yield from maize caused by erratic rainfall patterns.

Construction of gabions to protect river banks has protected homes at risk of sudden flooding.

Improved management of hillside cultivation through contour planting has reduced the risk of landslides following heavy rainfall.

Figure 5. Woman showing successful salt- tolerant rice crop (Photo: Practical Action)
Figure 5. Woman showing successful salt- tolerant rice crop (Photo: Practical Action)
In Sri Lanka, farmers undertook trials of traditional salt-tolerant rice varieties to identify those that did well in their fields where salt water had caused failure of modern rice varieties.

In Pakistan, planting of trees for fruit, fodder and fuel wood was undertaken to improve the structure and water retention properties of the soil, as well as to reduce pressure on dwindling forests.

Women were trained to construct and use more efficient stoves. The stoves reduced the time women were spending collecting fuelwood, freeing up time for cultivating vegetables to increase food supply and income.

Figure 6. Women trained to construct and use more efficient stoves (Photo: Practical Action)
Figure 6. Women trained to construct and use more efficient stoves (Photo: Practical Action)
Too often, developing country governments are pressurised to accept measures to reduce their own emissions and offset others, rather than assisting their most vulnerable communities on how to cope with climate change This is a result of the focus of international negotiations on mitigating climate change. A key aspect of this project has been raising awareness at all levels of government about the impacts of climate change, and how communities can be helped to cope and adapt. Workshops and meetings have been convened involving development agencies and ministry officials, to increase understanding about climate change, its likely impact on livelihoods and how community-based programmes of adaptation can help. The implications for government policy at national level, and the need for developing countries to speak out at international negotiations have been explained through the project’s activities.

Practical Action is now committing to ensure that the implications of climate change are taken into account in all its programmes of work. This means ensuring that programmes will assist their focus communities in adapting to climate change, as well as ensuring that climate change will not adversely affect the programmes. For example: for programmes relating to increasing access to modern energy sources, it means taking account for example of future expected water flows before implementing a micro-hydro scheme; for programmes relating to rural livelihoods, it means considering what future crops will be sustainable both for food production and for the market. In the latter case, the issue of agrofuels and opportunities for small-scale producers to gain from production for local markets is the topic of further investigation in Peru.

The impacts of climate change will be far-reaching, and development agencies have a major responsibility in helping vulnerable communities understand what is in store and increase their ability to cope and adapt.

[top] [end]Bioenergy focus for PISCES Energy Research Programme

PISCES is led by the African Centre for Technology Studies, Kenya (ACTS) with lead partners Practical Action, M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), the University of Dar es Salaam and the University of Edinburgh together with a network of national and international partners and collaborators. For more information please contact steven.hunt@...

This past quarter has seen the start of a new 5-year research programme on energy called PISCES, funded by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID). The Inception workshop in Nairobi 26-29th September was attended by governments, donors, International Organisations, NGOs, companies and universities. Participation in initial consultations has come from across the regions of focus in Kenya, Tanzania, South India and Sri Lanka. So why all this interest in an energy research programme apparently named after a star sign?

PISCES stands for Policy Innovation Systems for Clean Energy Security. Its objective is to produce policy-relevant information and approaches that can be applied by governments in developing the role of bioenergy in delivering energy access for the poor. It is the focus of PISCES on bioenergy – incorporating biomass from natural sources, biowaste streams from agriculture and industry, and biofuels from purpose grown energy crops – which has resonated with an increasingly polarised international debate. That debate centres on whether and how humanity should find more of our energy from bioenergy sources, and how that pathway might affect the poor and the environment.

Currently 2.5 billion people still rely on traditional biomass for basic energy services (IEA data). Meanwhile there is exploding global interest and activity in the growing of energy crops for the production of biofuels. While increased cultivation of energy crops could provide increased energy access for the poor, without appropriate policies in place it could easily pass them by or even damage their livelihoods. At the macro-level bioenergy has the potential to increase global energy supplies without increasing carbon emissions. At the local level it could absorb vital water supplies and fertile land needed to cultivate food.

PISCES project logo
PISCES project logo
It is against this backdrop of unprecedented global interest in bioenergy that PISCES will integrate research on water, food, energy and environmental security, with a focus on the role of bioenergy in increasing energy access and security of livelihoods for the poor without degrading the climate and environment. The new and existing technologies, including plant varieties, processes, appliances and practices, that are required if bioenergy is to power sustainable development will be analysed, developed and tested. The circular and dynamic relationships between the climate and environment, and bioenergy production and consumption, will be investigated and evaluated. Socio-economic studies and market analysis will aim to determine the types of structures, incentives and regulations that can create and sustain access and delivery of bioenergy to poor people. A networked centre of expertise bringing together experts and policymakers will be developed to bring these and other strands of research together and, crucially, into use.

With so many and varied types of stakeholders with an interest in bioenergy, PISCES will have to be responsive to many perspectives and this process has just started in Kenya, Tanzania, South India and Sri Lanka. However, with the role of bioenergy already crucial for the poor and with a big role envisaged for bioenergy in the future for all of us, the questions and outcomes of PISCES are likely to be of interest to more than just astrologers.

[top] [end]Smoke, health and household energy second report published by Liz Bates

In May 2005, Practical Action published ‘Smoke, health and household energy Volume 1’, describing a participatory approach researched by the organisation into the design, installation, monitoring and assessment of smoke alleviation technologies or interventions. A second phase of research focused around the impacts that could be achieved if ways could be found to enable a substantial percentage of the population to access interventions. The health of women cooks is very closely associated with the well-being of their young children, and the research also focused on women’s health. The work sought to identify ‘desirable product attributes’ that would encourage purchase and long-term adoption of these interventions.

[top] [end]Highlights

The most critical factor throughout this study has been the transfer of ownership of the problem of smoke alleviation from the project itself to the community, and the creation of a framework that continues to allow people either to access the interventions they desire, or to make short-term changes with the aspiration to make further improvements in the future.

Theatre and drama groups were very effective in Kenya, both in terms of awareness-raising, and because they raised the status of the community members. Engaging local government and other NGOs is vital if some form of direct subsidy is needed. A successful smoke forum was set up in Nepal.

Another factor which proved key in each country was the creation of micro-credit systems to help overcome the barrier of the up-front cost of the more costly interventions. A sense of ownership of the revolving seed capital led to high levels of repayment of revolving finance – people discussed what would happen to ‘their’ seed capital if they did not make the repayments – so it was no longer ‘NGO money’ and therefore it had to be repaid. The time frame for repayment was quite long – often more than one year – but people wanted to make repayments and many more households were reached using this form of finance.

Figure 1. Woman cooking on LPG stove at Kadugli Camp, Kassala, Sudan (Photo: L. Bates)
Figure 1. Woman cooking on LPG stove at Kadugli Camp, Kassala, Sudan (Photo: L. Bates)

[top] [end]Interventions

Time-savings, convenience and modernity favoured liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) among the more costly items – but many households just used it for fast cooking – making tea in the morning etc whilst using polluting fuels to cook main meals. For those using LPG, it is important to involve the suppliers of the LPG. If it is demonstrated that those on low incomes can still afford to buy LPG, this is a very big market. For the lower-cost options, fireless cookers (insulated boxes) were popular as they reduce fuel costs.

In colder regions, space heating takes up a lot of fuel, and leads to emissions of smoke over the longer periods when the fire is lit. An all-metal design smoke hood allows the heat to radiate from the hood. Although this is more expensive, it does prevent households from lighting open fires in other parts of their house to keep warm. Demonstrating how to insulate the dry-stone walls to reduce heat loss and to prevent cold air from blowing through the cracks has saved fuel and reduced emissions.

[top] [end]Findings

Where the interventions were used for all (or most) of the meals, they were very successful in reducing levels of smoke (Kenya 72%; Nepal 80%: Sudan 33%). In Sudan, due to a reduction in the price of charcoal, many households reverted to this fuel, although all the households stated their preference for LPG and measures are being taken to facilitate better access to smaller, more affordable, refills.

[top] [end]Kenya

Adoption rates for the more costly interventions were relatively slow, with around 350 households adopting interventions for which revolving finance was needed whilst natural adoption of other no-cost or low-cost technologies, such as fireless cookers, eaves spaces, and behavioural changes is believed to be high. The interventions purchased were still in use in all cases among those responding to the questionnaire in Kenya.

[top] [end]Nepal

During the project period, around 450 smoke hoods were installed, or were just about to be installed. Continuing growth will depend largely on the priority given to alleviating smoke given by the District Development Committee, who will run the revolving fund and have committed to continue to support the initiative and to provide subsidy in the immediate future. All the smoke hoods installed are in constant use.

[top] [end]Sudan

Adoption levels in Sudan continue to be high, with a steady and ongoing installation rate of around 50 stoves per month. Non-use of LPG has led to savings groups deciding to allocate saved money to buy LPG and other fuels. This has already been started to address this issue, and local depots are promised to improve access.

[top] [end]Community satisfaction

Satisfaction ratings in all countries are close to 100% on all counts. Even in Sudan, where many households had reverted to charcoal, there was almost universal support for the use of LPG stoves. In Kenya, the major benefits were reported as time, fuel reduction, smoke reduction; in Nepal, the key benefits included smoke alleviation, fuel savings and health improvements: in Sudan, cooks cited time-savings, increased comfort and smoke reduction.

Awareness-raising can change people’s priorities and create markets provided that the goods and appliances are available. Working with community groups to disseminate messages through theatre groups, drama, design of outputs can be a powerful tool to reach very large numbers of people.

Poverty is not a static condition but a result of changing livelihood conditions and options, so working with those living in poverty to identify ways in which people can help themselves immediately and build up gradually will start an ongoing process of change.

Micro-credit, run by the communities themselves, has been highly effective, and has been shown to be useful even where it is not used for income generation. This is an important finding and runs contrary to conventional wisdom. This approach could be used for other household initiatives, such as water, sanitation, shelter provision etc. Discussions around its implementation, duration of loan, maximum loan etc. have given rise to good repayments and a sense of ownership of the system. Ideally, it should be used for a range of interventions across all services, as this would give those in community a greater say in its use.

Making savings in costs and time can be very valuable and should be part of the ‘mix’ wherever possible.

A holistic approach to the impacts is important if goods and services are to be promoted widely. Provided that interventions do not lose sight of their prime objective, other ‘desirable product attributes’ can encourage people to adopt such interventions.

The impact of making changes in the kitchen goes far beyond just alleviating smoke. Particularly in societies where the woman tends to have a lower status, many of the impacts reported are social, rather than environmental, benefits; women are aware of their improved health and that of their children; their homes are cleaner, their drudgery is reduced. This research indicates that improving the quality of life in the home can lead to increased wealth, better health, more time and improved status.

[top] [end]Overall conclusions and findings

[top] [end]Health

The approach taken has been to use the change (reduction) in IAP levels as the main indicator of expected impact on child health, by relating measured reductions in pollution to the best available and emerging evidence on the association between exposure levels and incidence of pneumonia. This indicated that if interventions were introduced into 25% of households such as those in the study, the number of cases of pneumonia could be reduced annually by between 150-300 in Kenya and Nepal, and around 100 in Sudan in populations ranging from around 63,000 in Kenya, 45,000 in Nepal, and 79,000 in Sudan. In Sudan this impact is indicated despite the numbers of households using charcoal at the time of the study.

As well as pneumonia, substantial reductions in other health problems were reported in all three countries, particularly in Kenya and Nepal. In Kenya, there was strong evidence of a reduction in the prevalence of the general cough and wheeze symptoms, with many fewer indicating chronic problems.

There was a marked and statistically significant reduction in headaches in terms of frequency and strength of headaches. Although numbers are low, there is strong evidence that where interventions were in use, the risk of burns and scalds to children has been reduced. In all three countries there was a reduction noted in the number of visits to health providers and the cost of health provision. In Kenya and Nepal this was particularly marked.

[top] [end]Scaling up

In all three countries, scaling up through addressing both supply and demand sides has proved successful. Locally run revolving funds continue to provide ways for people to purchase smoke interventions. Entrepreneurs have been trained, and continue to work on interventions. All these operations are operating commercially, although in Nepal, subsidy is still being provided by the District Development Committee.

[top] [end]Impacts

The impacts of the work have been overwhelmingly positive. This is the case when specific questions were asked regarding health, time, income/savings, environment and prestige/quality of life, and also when people were asked to identify the impacts that the interventions had made.

The team are not aware of any major negative impacts, but problems (such as rain entering buildings in Nepal) have mainly been sorted, or are currently being addressed. Issues around savings in Sudan are being addressed.

[top] [end]Download the original article

pdf file link Practical Action News by Lucy Stevens (754 KB)

[top] [end]Contents: Boiling Point 54 - Climate change and household energy

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Theme Editorial - Carbon finance for clean cooking – time to grasp the opportunity - BP54:Health and Greenhouse Gas Impacts in Africa - BP54:Carbon Finance for Healthy Kitchens - BP54:Critique of GHG stove assessment methods - BP54: Practical Action CO2 offsetting experience - BP54: Credible Carbon Offsets for African Households - BP54: GTZ News - BP54: Practical Action News - BP54: Marine conservation and energy efficient stoves - BP54: Can Carbon Finance Clean Cooking? - BP54: Rates of smoke emissions - BP54: A Polyethylene Dome for Biogas Plants - BP54: HEDON news





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